• Black Pepper
  • Black Pepper

Black Pepper

  • Scientific Name
    Piper nigrum
  • Family
    Piperaceae
  • Origin
    Indiaetc.

CONTENTS

Plant description

Black Pepper is a perennial vine of the pepper family, growing up to 10 meters long. It produces small, spherical fruits, known as peppercorns, typically ranging from 3-6 mm in size. Initially green, these peppercorns turn red and eventually mature into a black color. Depending on the processing method, various types of pepper can be obtained, with the most familiar one being Black Pepper, which is achieved by drying the berries before full ripening. It has a rich history that spans over 4,000 years, with applications in traditional medicine, particularly in Ayurveda. There is a theory suggesting that during medieval times, black pepper was as valuable as gold in Europe, contributing to the Age of Exploration due to its soaring demand.

Essential oil composition

Black Pepper

  • Black Pepper

  • INCI
    Piper Nigrum (Pepper) Fruit Oil
  • Parts of Plant Used
    Fruit (seed)
  • Extraction Method
    Steam Distillation
  • Extraction Rate
    2.3 - 3.5％（dried）
  • Notes
    Top
  • Aroma Family
    Spice

Black Pepper Essential Oil Properties & Uses

Approximately 2.3% to 3.5% of Black Pepper essential oil is derived through steam distillation from the dried fruits, or seeds and is colorless.The primary components of this essential oil include β-caryophyllene, limonene, α-pinene, and δ-3-carene. It is known for its spicy and pungent aroma with the characteristic scent of pepper. Its fragrance provides a warming sensation from within, giving off a hot, invigorating impression. There's also a subtle woody undertone that imparts a gentle, comforting warmth to the body. Black Pepper essential oil pairs particularly well with certain other essential oils to create balanced blends. It complements essential oils like Lemon and Rosemary, which have a refreshing quality, as well as Rose and Ylang Ylang, known for their sweet notes. Due to its relatively mild fragrance, it is advisable to gradually add this essential oil to maintain a well-balanced aroma blend.

Essential oil composition

Essential oil composition

※An example of one batch production is shown here.

  • β-Caryophyllene　24.7%
  • Limonene　14.4%
  • α-Pinene　9.9%
  • β-Pinene　9.6%
  • δ-3-Carene　9.5%
  • Sabinene　8.0%
  • α-Copaene　2.5%
  • Elemene　1.6%
  • Caryophyllene oxide　1.5%
  • Myrcene　1.3%
  • α-Humulene　1.3%
  • Bisabolene　1.1%
  • α-Thujene　1.0%
  • Other components　13.6%

Functions and Efficacies

α-Pinene

α-Pinene
  • IUPAC Name
    (+)-α-Pinene: (1R,5R)-2,6,6-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene
    (-)-α-Pinene: (1S,5S)-2,6,6-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene
  • Molecular Formula
    C10H16
  • Molecular Weight
    136.23 g/mol
  • CAS No.
    (+)-α-Pinene: 7785-70-8
    (-)-α-Pinene: 7785-26-4
  • Structure
    Bicyclic monoterpene

Functions and Efficacies of α-Pinene

in slico in vitro ex vivo in vivo
Non-clinical Clinical
Mice Rats Guinea Pigs Insects Rabbits Human
Stress Reduction ○
Anti-bacterial Effects ○
Anti-inflammatory Effects ○

Stress Reduction

A study reported that brain tumors in mice that inhaled the fragrance of α-pinene became smaller. However, no melanoma cell growth was observed with the addition of α-pinene, indicating a potential psychological effect .1)

Anti-bacterial Effects

A study reported that α-pinene had an inhibitory effect on the growth of blue staining fungi, both when exposed to gas and when added to the culture medium2)

Anti-inflammatory Effects

It is known that the addition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 cells induces the production of nitric oxide (NO), a substance that causes inflammation. A study reported that the production of NO was suppressed by the addition of α-pinene.3)

  • 1)Kusuhara et al., Biomedical Research, 2012
  • 2)岡村、木材保存、
  • 3)Kwak et al., Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 2019

Limonene

Limonene
  • IUPAC Name
    1-methyl-4-prop-1-en-2-ylcyclohexene
  • Molecular Formula
    C10H16
  • Molecular Weight
    136.23 g/mol
  • CAS No.
    138-86-3
  • Structure
    Monocyclic monoterpene

Functions and Efficacies of Limonene

in slico in vitro ex vivo in vivo
Non-clinical Clinical
Mice Rats Guinea Pigs Insects Rabbits Human
Stress Reduction ○
Memory Improvement ○ ○
Anti-cancer Effects ○ ○ ○

Stress Reduction

A study reported that mice subjected to cold stress at 4°C (41°F) exhibited reduced elevations in blood corticosterone levels when treated with limonene. Furthermore, the same report demonstrated that limonene effectively lowered corticosterone levels in the blood of mice exposed to both physical and mental stress.1)

Memory Improvement

A study reported that when acetylcholinesterase reacts with acetylthiocholine in phosphate-buffered saline, the introduction of limonene inhibits the degradation by acetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase plays a role in the breakdown of acetylcholine, a hormone associated with memory and learning. In the same report, it was also noted that limonene suppressed memory impairment induced by scopolamine administration in rats.2)

Anti-cancer Effects

A report indicated that the consumption of limonene by breast cancer patients resulted in reduced expression of Cyclin D1, a protein crucial for cell division, within tumors.3)Furthermore, numerous other studies have also documented the anticancer properties of limonene.4)5)

  • 1)Fukumoto et al., Stress and Health, 2008
  • 2)Zhou et al., Nutritional Neuroscience,, 2013
  • 3)Miller et al., Cancer Prevntion Research, 2013
  • 4)Ajikumaran Nair S et al., Phytomedicine, 2018
  • 5)Chaudhary et al., Human & Experimental Toxicology, 2012

IFRA

Limonene：
Oxidized limonene can cause dermal sensitization. For essential oils with a high limonene content, it is advisable to use only when the level of peroxides is maintained at a minimum (20 mol/l) through the incorporation of antioxidants.

※Only information for selected components are shown here.

References
Jennie Harding [Handbook of Essential Oil and Plant Oil] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2010.
Shinichiro Otsuki/Yukiko Ozaki [Scientific Name Etymology Dictionary of Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2009.
Jennie Harding [Illustrated Reference Book of Herbs] Sancho Publishing, 2012.
Freddy Ghozland/Xavier Fernandez [L’Herbier Parfume] Hara Publishing, 2013.
Kyohei Mikami [Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oils] Fragrance Journal, 2010.
Yuzuru Ogura [Dictionary of Plants] Tokyo-do Publishing, 1957.
Nobuo Ohashi [Dictionary of Medical Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2016.
Wanda Sellar [The directory of essential oils] Fragrance Journal, 1992.
Aroma Environment Association of Japan [AEAJ Aromatherapy Certification Official Textbook grade1&2] Sekaibunka, 1999.
Robert Tissearand [Essential Oil Safety] Fragrance Journal, 2018.
Ayako Berg [Aromatherapy Essential Oil Dictionary] Seibido Shuppan, 2022.
Azusa Annells [Enjoying Fragrance: An Illustrated Book of Aromas with Characteristics]Natsumesha CO.,LTD., 2023
International Fragrance Association, Limonene, 1995.
(All written in or translated to Japanese.)
Supervisor
Yamamoto Perfumery co., ltd.

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