• Bitter Orange
  • Bitter Orange
  • Bitter Orange
  • Bitter Orange

Bitter Orange

  • Scientific Name
    Citrus × aurantium
  • Family
    Rutaceae
  • Origin
    Spain, Portugal, Tunisia, Italy, France, Morocco, Egypt, Paraguayetc.

CONTENTS

Plant description

Bitter Orange belongs to the Rutaceae family and grows to about 5 m tall.   This tree produces beautiful white flowers and green leaves with a distinct shape. Bitter Orange fruit is highly distinctive in appearance, transitioning from green in the summer to orange in the winter, and returning to green once again as the year concludes. This unique cycle has led to its Japanese name, “代々” (from generations to generation), signifying the passing down of fruit from one generation to the next and associating it with good luck. Bitter Orange has enjoyed popularity not only as a food source but also as an ingredient in colognes and a symbol of good luck for an extended period. In the present day, it is primarily cultivated in Spain, Portugal, and Italy for its fruit and, for its flowers in Southern France.

Essential oil composition

Petitgrain

  • Petitgrain

  • INCI
    CITRUS AURANTIUM AMARA (BITTER ORANGE) LEAF/TWIG OIL
  • Parts of Plant Used
    Leaf / Branch
  • Extraction Method
    Steam Distillation
  • Extraction Rate
    0.25 - 0.5％
  • Notes
    Top - Middle
  • Aroma Family
    Ctirus

Petitgrain Essential Oil Properties & Uses

Petitgrain essential oil is obtained by steam distillation from bitter orange branches and leaves at around 0.25-0.5% efficiency, and is yellow to amber in color. Its primary constituents include linalool and linalyl acetate, recognized for its relaxing properties, and limonene, which imparts a citrus-like aroma. The fragrance is characterized by its deep green notes, offering a warm and subtle citrus impression. The slightly green, fresh, woody, and profound scent brings about a sense of tranquility. It harmonizes seamlessly with a variety of other essential oils, particularly with Sweet Orange and Bergamot, both of which share a citrus profile. Additionally, it pairs well with Vetiver and Sandalwood, which adds a deep sweetness to the blend. While the fragrance of petitgrain is relatively mild, overuse may accentuate its characteristic greenness, making it advisable to add it gradually to achieve a well-balanced aroma.

Essential oil composition

Essential oil composition

※An example of one batch production is shown here.

  • Linalyl acetate　47.4%
  • Linalool　22.5%
  • α-Terpineol 4.9%
  • γ-Terpinene　3.6%
  • Geranyl acetate　3.5%
  • d-Limonene　2.8%
  • trans-Ocimene　2.2%
  • Neryl acetate　2.1%
  • p-Cymene + cis-Ocimene　2.1%
  • Myrcene　2.0%
  • beta-Pinene　1.6%
  • Nerol 　1.1%
  • other components　4.3%
Bitter Orange (cold-pressed / furocoumarin-free)

  • Bitter Orange (cold-pressed / furocoumarin-free)

  • INCI
    CITRUS AURANTIUM AMARA （BITTER ORANGE） OIL、CITRUS AURANTIUM AMARA （BITTER ORANGE） PEEL OIL
  • Parts of Plant Used
    Fruit / Peel
  • Extraction Method
    Cold Press
  • Extraction Rate
    0.6％（cold-pressed）
  • Notes
    Top
  • Aroma Family
    Citrus

Bitter Orange (cold-pressed / furocoumarin-free) Essential Oil Properties & Uses

About 0.6% of Bitter Orange essential oil is obtained from the bitter orange fruit by cold press, and it is colorless after decolorization. Its primary constituent, limonene, defines its citrus-like aroma. The fragrance is somewhat more mature compared to that of sweet orange, carrying a dry and bitter impression. Its familiar scent brings a sense of relief simply through inhalation, making it an ideal choice for creating a less sweet and more refreshing fragrance. The fragrance strength is relatively weak, allowing for easy balancing by adding a little more to achieve the desired blend.

Essential oil composition

Essential oil composition

※An example of one batch production is shown here.

  • Limonene　90.4%
  • Linalyl acetate　5.1%
  • Myrcene　1.3%
  • Other components　3.2%

Functions and Efficacies

Linalool

Linalool
  • IUPAC Name
    3,7-Dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol
  • Molecular Formula
    C10H18O
  • Molecular Weight
    154.25 g/mol
  • CAS No.
    78-70-6
  • Structure
    Monoterpene alcohol

Functions and Efficacies of Linalool

in slico in vitro ex vivo in vivo
Non-clinical Clinical
Mice Rats Guinea Pigs Insects Rabbits Human
Anti-inflammatory Effects ○
Stress Reduction ○ ○
Anti-oxidant Effects ○

Anti-inflammatory Effects

A study reported that linalool reduced hindlimb edema in rats induced by carrageenan administration. 1)

Stress Reduction

A study reported that linalool treatment increased the time it took for mice to escape to a dark room when under light stress. Additionally, it reduced the number and duration of attacks on other mice in a confined room, indicating its stress-reducing effects.2) Linalool inhalation was observed to reverse gene expression alterations in the hypothalamus associated with stress response in mice.3) Numerous studies have documented the stress-reducing capabilities of linalool.4)5)6)

Anti-oxidant Effects

A study reported that the addition of linalool was found to suppress the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced by UV irradiation in human skin fibroblasts.7)

  • 1)Peana et al., Phytomedicine, 2002
  • 2)Linck et al., Phytomedicine, 2010
  • 3)Yoshida et al., Neuroscience Letters, 2017
  • 4)Harada et al., Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 2018
  • 5)Souto-Maior et al., Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 2011
  • 6)Weston-Green et al., Frontiers in Scichiatry, 2021
  • 7)Gunaseelan et al., Plos One, 2017

Limonene

Limonene
  • IUPAC Name
    1-methyl-4-prop-1-en-2-ylcyclohexene
  • Molecular Formula
    C10H16
  • Molecular Weight
    136.23 g/mol
  • CAS No.
    138-86-3
  • Structure
    Monocyclic monoterpene

Functions and Efficacies of Limonene

in slico in vitro ex vivo in vivo
Non-clinical Clinical
Mice Rats Guinea Pigs Insects Rabbits Human
Stress Reduction ○
Memory Improvement ○ ○
Anti-cancer Effects ○ ○ ○

Stress Reduction

A study reported that mice subjected to cold stress at 4°C (41°F) exhibited reduced elevations in blood corticosterone levels when treated with limonene. Furthermore, the same report demonstrated that limonene effectively lowered corticosterone levels in the blood of mice exposed to both physical and mental stress.1)

Memory Improvement

A study reported that when acetylcholinesterase reacts with acetylthiocholine in phosphate-buffered saline, the introduction of limonene inhibits the degradation by acetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase plays a role in the breakdown of acetylcholine, a hormone associated with memory and learning. In the same report, it was also noted that limonene suppressed memory impairment induced by scopolamine administration in rats.2)

Anti-cancer Effects

A report indicated that the consumption of limonene by breast cancer patients resulted in reduced expression of Cyclin D1, a protein crucial for cell division, within tumors.3)Furthermore, numerous other studies have also documented the anticancer properties of limonene.4)5)

  • 1)Fukumoto et al., Stress and Health, 2008
  • 2)Zhou et al., Nutritional Neuroscience,, 2013
  • 3)Miller et al., Cancer Prevntion Research, 2013
  • 4)Ajikumaran Nair S et al., Phytomedicine, 2018
  • 5)Chaudhary et al., Human & Experimental Toxicology, 2012

IFRA

Linalool：
Oxidized linalool can cause dermal sensitization. For essential oils with a high linalool content, it is advisable to use only when the level of peroxides is maintained at a minimum (20 mol/l) through the incorporation of antioxidants.

※Only information for selected components are shown here.

Bitter Orange：
There are restrictions on its use in the final product due to the possibility of phototoxicity caused by the presence of furocoumarins (bergapten).

Bitter Orange

※Only information for selected components are shown here.

Limonene：
Oxidized limonene can cause dermal sensitization. For essential oils with a high limonene content, it is advisable to use only when the level of peroxides is maintained at a minimum (20 mol/l) through the incorporation of antioxidants.

※Only information for selected components are shown here.

References
Jennie Harding [Handbook of Essential Oil and Plant Oil] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2010.
Shinichiro Otsuki/Yukiko Ozaki [Scientific Name Etymology Dictionary of Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2009.
Jennie Harding [Illustrated Reference Book of Herbs] Sancho Publishing, 2012.
Freddy Ghozland/Xavier Fernandez [L’Herbier Parfume] Hara Publishing, 2013.
Kyohei Mikami [Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oils] Fragrance Journal, 2010.
Yuzuru Ogura [Dictionary of Plants] Tokyo-do Publishing, 1957.
Nobuo Ohashi [Dictionary of Medical Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2016.
Wanda Sellar [The directory of essential oils] Fragrance Journal, 1992.
Aroma Environment Association of Japan [AEAJ Aromatherapy Certification Official Textbook grade1&2] Sekaibunka, 1999.
Robert Tissearand [Essential Oil Safety] Fragrance Journal, 2018.
Ayako Berg [Aromatherapy Essential Oil Dictionary] Seibido Shuppan, 2022.
Azusa Annells [Enjoying Fragrance: An Illustrated Book of Aromas with Characteristics]Natsumesha CO.,LTD., 2023
International Fragrance Association, Linalool, 2004.
(All written in or translated to Japanese.)
Supervisor
Yamamoto Perfumery co., ltd.
References
Jennie Harding [Handbook of Essential Oil and Plant Oil] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2010.
Shinichiro Otsuki/Yukiko Ozaki [Scientific Name Etymology Dictionary of Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2009.
Jennie Harding [Illustrated Reference Book of Herbs] Sancho Publishing, 2012.
Freddy Ghozland/Xavier Fernandez [L’Herbier Parfume] Hara Publishing, 2013.
Kyohei Mikami [Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oils] Fragrance Journal, 2010.
Yuzuru Ogura [Dictionary of Plants] Tokyo-do Publishing, 1957.
Nobuo Ohashi [Dictionary of Medical Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2016.
Wanda Sellar [The directory of essential oils] Fragrance Journal, 1992.
Aroma Environment Association of Japan [AEAJ Aromatherapy Certification Official Textbook grade1&2] Sekaibunka, 1999.
Robert Tissearand [Essential Oil Safety] Fragrance Journal, 2018.
Ayako Berg [Aromatherapy Essential Oil Dictionary] Seibido Shuppan, 2022.
Azusa Annells [Enjoying Fragrance: An Illustrated Book of Aromas with Characteristics]Natsumesha CO.,LTD., 2023
International Fragrance Association, Bitter orange peel oil expressed, 2020
International Fragrance Association, Limonene, 1995.
(All written in or translated to Japanese.)
Supervisor
Yamamoto Perfumery co., ltd.

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