• Fennel
  • Fennel

Fennel

  • Scientific Name
    Foeniculum vulgare
  • Family
    Apiaceae
  • Origin
    Hungaryetc.

CONTENTS

Plant description

Fennel, a perennial herb belonging to the Apiaceae family, typically reaches a height of 1 to 2 meters. It features feathery green leaves and bright yellow flowers composed of numerous small, radial blooms. Fennel thrives in sunny environments and is relatively easy to cultivate. All parts of the plant find various uses: the fruit as a spice, the leaves for brewing herbal tea, and the bulbous lower stem, resembling an onion, as a vegetable. Fennel has a rich history of diverse applications, including its use as an amulet.
The genus name of fennel, Foeniculum, is believed to originate from the Latin word “foenum,” which means hay. Fennel is primarily grown in the Mediterranean region, and most of its essential oil is produced in this area.

Essential oil composition

Fennel

  • Fennel

  • INCI
    FOENICULUM VULGARE (FENNEL) OIL
  • Parts of Plant Used
    Fruit
  • Extraction Method
    Steam Distillation
  • Extraction Rate
    2.5 - 6.0%（dried）
  • Notes
    Middle
  • Aroma Family
    Herbal

Fennel Essential Oil Properties & Uses

Approximately 2.5-6.0% of Fennel essential oil is obtained through steam distillation of its fruit, resulting in a clear to slightly yellowish color. The predominant component of this oil is anethole, which is known for its sweetness, being approximately 13 times sweeter than sugar. Trans-anethole, a constituent of the oil, is sometimes used as a food flavoring. Its aroma is reminiscent of anise, featuring a slightly intoxicating, penetrating, herbal sweetness and a cool, refreshing quality. It blends harmoniously with various essential oils, particularly citrus oils like Sweet Orange and Bergamot, as well as sweet-scented oils such as Sandalwood, Geranium, and Palmarosa.Due to its relatively strong fragrance, it is advisable to add it gradually when blending to achieve a balanced scent.

Essential oil composition

Essential oil composition

※An example of one batch production is shown here.

  • Anethole　77.11%
  • Fenchone　5.34%
  • Limonene　4.30%
  • Estragole　3.46%
  • α-Pinene　2.20%
  • α-Phellandrene　1.66%
  • Other components　5.93%

Functions and Efficacies

α-Pinene

α-Pinene
  • IUPAC Name
    (+)-α-Pinene: (1R,5R)-2,6,6-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene
    (-)-α-Pinene: (1S,5S)-2,6,6-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene
  • Molecular Formula
    C10H16
  • Molecular Weight
    136.23 g/mol
  • CAS No.
    (+)-α-Pinene: 7785-70-8
    (-)-α-Pinene: 7785-26-4
  • Structure
    Bicyclic monoterpene

Functions and Efficacies of α-Pinene

in slico in vitro ex vivo in vivo
Non-clinical Clinical
Mice Rats Guinea Pigs Insects Rabbits Human
Stress Reduction ○
Anti-bacterial Effects ○
Anti-inflammatory Effects ○

Stress Reduction

A study reported that brain tumors in mice that inhaled the fragrance of α-pinene became smaller. However, no melanoma cell growth was observed with the addition of α-pinene, indicating a potential psychological effect .1)

Anti-bacterial Effects

A study reported that α-pinene had an inhibitory effect on the growth of blue staining fungi, both when exposed to gas and when added to the culture medium2)

Anti-inflammatory Effects

It is known that the addition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 cells induces the production of nitric oxide (NO), a substance that causes inflammation. A study reported that the production of NO was suppressed by the addition of α-pinene.3)

  • 1)Kusuhara et al., Biomedical Research, 2012
  • 2)岡村、木材保存、
  • 3)Kwak et al., Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation, 2019

Limonene

Limonene
  • IUPAC Name
    1-methyl-4-prop-1-en-2-ylcyclohexene
  • Molecular Formula
    C10H16
  • Molecular Weight
    136.23 g/mol
  • CAS No.
    138-86-3
  • Structure
    Monocyclic monoterpene

Functions and Efficacies of Limonene

in slico in vitro ex vivo in vivo
Non-clinical Clinical
Mice Rats Guinea Pigs Insects Rabbits Human
Stress Reduction ○
Memory Improvement ○ ○
Anti-cancer Effects ○ ○ ○

Stress Reduction

A study reported that mice subjected to cold stress at 4°C (41°F) exhibited reduced elevations in blood corticosterone levels when treated with limonene. Furthermore, the same report demonstrated that limonene effectively lowered corticosterone levels in the blood of mice exposed to both physical and mental stress.1)

Memory Improvement

A study reported that when acetylcholinesterase reacts with acetylthiocholine in phosphate-buffered saline, the introduction of limonene inhibits the degradation by acetylcholinesterase. Acetylcholinesterase plays a role in the breakdown of acetylcholine, a hormone associated with memory and learning. In the same report, it was also noted that limonene suppressed memory impairment induced by scopolamine administration in rats.2)

Anti-cancer Effects

A report indicated that the consumption of limonene by breast cancer patients resulted in reduced expression of Cyclin D1, a protein crucial for cell division, within tumors.3)Furthermore, numerous other studies have also documented the anticancer properties of limonene.4)5)

  • 1)Fukumoto et al., Stress and Health, 2008
  • 2)Zhou et al., Nutritional Neuroscience,, 2013
  • 3)Miller et al., Cancer Prevntion Research, 2013
  • 4)Ajikumaran Nair S et al., Phytomedicine, 2018
  • 5)Chaudhary et al., Human & Experimental Toxicology, 2012

IFRA

Limonene：
Oxidized limonene can cause dermal sensitization. For essential oils with a high limonene content, it is advisable to use only when the level of peroxides is maintained at a minimum (20 mol/l) through the incorporation of antioxidants.

※Only information for selected components are shown here.

References
Jennie Harding [Handbook of Essential Oil and Plant Oil] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2010.
Shinichiro Otsuki/Yukiko Ozaki [Scientific Name Etymology Dictionary of Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2009.
Jennie Harding [Illustrated Reference Book of Herbs] Sancho Publishing, 2012.
Freddy Ghozland/Xavier Fernandez [L’Herbier Parfume] Hara Publishing, 2013.
Kyohei Mikami [Comprehensive Guide to Essential Oils] Fragrance Journal, 2010.
Yuzuru Ogura [Dictionary of Plants] Tokyo-do Publishing, 1957.
Nobuo Ohashi [Dictionary of Medical Herbs] Tokyo-do Publishing, 2016.
Wanda Sellar [The directory of essential oils] Fragrance Journal, 1992.
Aroma Environment Association of Japan [AEAJ Aromatherapy Certification Official Textbook grade1&2] Sekaibunka, 1999.
Robert Tissearand [Essential Oil Safety] Fragrance Journal, 2018.
Ayako Berg [Aromatherapy Essential Oil Dictionary] Seibido Shuppan, 2022.
Azusa Annells [Enjoying Fragrance: An Illustrated Book of Aromas with Characteristics]Natsumesha CO.,LTD., 2023
International Fragrance Association, Limonene, 1995
(All written in or translated to Japanese.)
Supervisor
Yamamoto Perfumery co., ltd.

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